Hamlet: Act II Summary

Act II

Themes:

Communication
Spying
Artifice
Performance
Madness

Scene I: We are farther ahead in time now by several weeks. We find Polonius bribing a fellow named Reynaldo some cash to spy on his son, Laertes, who is away at school in Paris. He cautions Reynaldo to be cautious, and to slyly bring up the subject by way of conversation with those who might know Laertes. Meantime, Ophelia comes in flustered, going on about how Hamlet had just been to see her while she sat sewing in her chamber. He was all disheveled: his stockings were "fouled" and sagging at the ankles, his shirt was open--in Elizabethan times this look was recognized as his being anguished over love. In truth, Hamlet didn't say much, he only grabbed her by the wrists, dragging her hand the length of his arm and her other hand over his brow and let out a long, anguished sigh. This they believed was the behavior of the anguished lover, indeed. Ophelia convinces her father that she is, indeed, still chaste, and Polonius resolves to take the matter to the King.

In truth, Hamlet has begun his charade of madness. Those around him aren't sure whether he's in earnest, if this is some case of melancholia (a malady thought to be real back then and responsible for such behavior) or perhaps he's bluffing--but no one just steps up and asks.

Scene II:
Claudius has notice his nephew's strange behavior. So, in the tradition of hiring someone to spy on your children, Gertrude and Claudius call on Hamlet's old school friends, Rosencrantz and Gildenstern, to talk to Hamlet and find out what they can, then deliver that news back to the royals.

An interesting note: While the two emissaries are about to enter, Gertrude, in a private conversation with her new husband, acknowledges the "real" reason behind Hamlet's madness:

"I doubt it is no other but the main;
His father's death and out o'erhasty marriage." (lines 56-7).

Yet, no more is said on the matter.

Meanwhile, Voltimand and Cornelius return from their errand in Norway. Claudius has been fearful that young Prince Fortinbras will declare war and reclaim the lands Claudius won in a bet. However, it turns out Claudius's fears were unjustified. Then once that is settled, everyone turns their attentions back to Hamlet, whom they have diagnosed with love-sickness for Ophelia. Hence begins Polonius's ironic address:

"This business is well ended.
My liege, and madam, to expostulate
What majesty should be, what duty is,
Why day is day, night night, and time is time
Where nothing but to waste night, day and time.
Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit
And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes,
I will be brief. Your noble son is mad:
Mad call I it: for, to define true madness,
What is't but to be nothing else but mad?
But let that go." (lines 85-94

To prove his point, Polonius reads from some saucy love letters Hamlet sent to her. The royals and Polonius plan to set the two young lovers up in a situation that will reveal the truth of Hamlet's condition--the young prince has acquired the habit of pacing manically in the lobby each day, so they all decide to choose that spot to reunite the kids.  

As it happens, Polonius and Hamlet have a dialogue in Ophelia's absence. Hamlet trades some loaded words with Polonius, insinuates him as a 'fishmonger,' (or pimp), and wishes aloud that Polonius could be so "honest a man." Hamlet then cautions him not to let his daughter out into the sun, for the sun will breed maggots in a dead dog, so it will breed in Ophelia's womb. Yep. Insulting.

By now you might have picked up on the theme of spying: it appears that almost everyone, particularly Polonius, is tip-toeing around corners and listening in on conversations. It would seem that Polonius thinks of himself as a trusted insider as Lord Chamberlain of the castle, but could it be that his fawning is mere performance to make inroads with the royal house?

Then there is the artifice of Hamlet's performance of madness. How does his performance address the performances going on around him--particularly the double entendre he issues at Polonius and others, the asides and soliloquies that suggest his true feelings.

Enter Rosencrantz and Gildenstern, friends of Hamlet's from way back. Even though he seems softened by their appearance, Hamlet will not tell them what he's up to, or what's happened to trigger his charade of madness. He only asks them why they've been sent. Before long a troupe of actors appears and Hamlet has a telling interaction with one of the players, when he asks that the player recite the Murder of Priam from the Aeneid. While Polonius yawns and balks, Hamlet has a realization or two.

First, the narrative of Priam's death bears a great deal of similarity to what just happened here. Perhaps a play is the thing to catch the conscience of the king. After a long soliloquy in which he chastises himself for doing nothing but speech making (and balking at that player for getting all teary-eyed over Hecuba), Hamlet resolves to stage a play, the Murder of Gonzago, in which true events will be depicted, along with a short monologue Hamlet will pen just for the occasion.

Hamlet: Act I Summary

Act I, Scene I:

British actor Derek Jacoby as Hamlet

Scene I
We are first introduced to the goings-on at Elsinore Castle from the encounter that guardsmen Horatio, Marcellus and Bernardo and Francisco have with the ghost of the former King Hamlet. The others dare Horatio to speak to the phantom, and he does, and he scares it away. Or so they think.

Scene II
We meet Prince Hamlet at the wedding of his Uncle Claudius, and his mother, Queen Gertrude of Elsinore. Hamlet is dressed in mourning clothes and he's surly. Once all have cleared the state room, he embarks on a soliloquy in which he denounces the hasty marriage. Then the guards show up to tell him all about the specter they've just seen. Marcellus and Horatio are old friends of Hamlet's from Wittenberg, who've left school to attend the wedding. Then they tell Hamlet about the ghost who's hanging around the battlements outside.

We also learn of a war raging in the distance beyond the castle: Prince Fortinbras has vowed to avenge the death of his father--an event occasioned by the guy who is now a ghost. Fortinbras aims to collect on the land that Hamlet took from his father.

Hamlet decides to confront the ghost. He and his chums Horatio and Marcellus agree to help him wait for it "twixt eleven and twelve" (line 251).

Scene III
Meanwhile, Polonius, the castle's Lord Chamberlain, is chatting with his kids, Laertes, who is about to take off to college in France, and Ophelia, who has it bad for Hamlet. Polonius dispenses some critical, paternal advice to his son, in which he tells him "Neither a borrower or lender be: For loan oft loses both itself and friend" and "This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow as the night the day, Then canst not then be false to any man" (lines 77-83). Then he tenders advice to his young daughter Ophelia, warning her not to expect much out of this 'romance' with Hamlet: he is royalty and will choose a royal wife. And, she must retain her virtue: if she sleeps with him she has hence lost her chastity and her honor. Ah well, too late.

Scene IV

We're taken back to the battlements, where Hamlet, Marcellus, and Horatio all sit sentry, waiting for a ghost to show up. It shows up, alright. It appears before them, beckoning at them, while the Hamlet's friends urge him not to follow the thing: it could drag him off to hell or drive him mad. Hamlet listens not.

Scene V
The ghost and Hamlet have a chat. Effectively, Claudius is to blame for King Hamlet's death: "The serpent that did sting thy father's life now wears his crown" and all that. While the king was sleeping in the garden (as was his custom), his brother sneaks upon him and pours poison into his ear. The upshot of all this is that the ghost wants Hamlet to avenge his murder, BUT

"...howsoever thou pursuest this act,
Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive
against thy mother aught: leave her to heaven,
and to those thorns that in her bosom lodge,
To prick and and sting her. Fare thee well at once!"

Horatio and Marcellus return and want to know the news. Hamlet tells all and swears them to secrecy upon his sword. Hamlet then plans to "put an antic disposition on" which could refer to a. a pantomime that he knows nothing; or b. a pantomime of madness.

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy"

The Shakespearean Theater and Hamlet

Hamlet is exalted above all of Shakespeare's other plays not only for its quotable lines ("to be or not to be--that is the question), for its memorable plot (young Danish prince finds out his mom and uncle plotted to kill his dad so that dad's brother can ascend to the throne--follow?); or for the impressive list of actors who have played the Greatest Dane of all: such greats as Sir Ian McKellen, Ralph Fiennes, Sir Laurence Olivier, Sarah Bernhardt (yes, a woman played Hamlet), Mel Gibson, Kenneth Branagh, Jude Law and Ethan Hawke have had turns at interpreting the role. For five centuries, Hamlet has loomed large on the literary--and theatrical list of greats. So, there's the rub: why we should care...

The common practice of interpreting a famous story from the folk archives of Scandinavian bards didn't stop with Beowulf. Hamlet, not unlike Oedipus Rex, is taken from folklore--even though its focus is the royal class. In fact, it is widely accepted that most of Shakespeare's plots were not original to Shakespeare--but that's not the point: it's the execution of the action that makes it his own. Shakespeare's Hamlet explores for the first time the inner conflicts of the individual--as well as the external conflicts of individuals within a society. The play blends humor, treachery, betrayal, a ghost story, madness, bawdiness, unrequited love, disappointment, and revenge in a way that no other work of art can match. But first let's discuss where Shakespeare staged his plays.

The Globe Theater (doublebarreledtravel.com)

The Globe theater was built in 1599 by a company of actors associated with Shakespeare--the Lord Chamberlain's men. The original Globe Theater burned in 1613 and a new Globe Theater was build in 1614 but closed in 1642. The third rendition, Shakespeare's Globe, has survived since 1997 (1).

Our text observes that "[T]he Globe was open to all social classes: anyone who wished could enter the theater by paying a penny, and at the cost of another, get a bench, cushion, and protection (in the boxes) from inclement weather. This mixing of social classes in his audience was echoed in Shakespeare's plays: rather than submitting to the stricter forms of classical drama, Shakespeare mixed comic routines with tragic soliloquies, the speech of common soldiers and bawds with the elegant language of the court. The Globe used almost no scenery and few stage props, so Shakespeare had to evoke the scene through language and deploy stage props sparingly. Only the costumes were lavish and constituted one of the most valuable possessions in the company. Shakespeare knew the theater inside out and his plays used its resources to the fullest, including sudden entrances and concealed eavesdroppers, brutal sword-fights and touching love scenes, witty asides and striking double entendres"(2). 

Hamlet

Sir Laurence Olivier as Hamlet (1948)

Hamlet builds on an ongoing tradition of great canonical dramas--and epics in two ways. As in many of the prominent selections we have studied, this tragedy occupies two distinct time periods: drawn from medieval Scandinavian folklore, the narrative of Hamlet is displaced to the Renaissance period (16th-17th centuries). In much the way Oedipus Rex examines the lives and torments of the ruling class, Hamlet focuses on the vicissitudes of life within the Danish court. However, in this Shakespearean masterpiece, we observe, at closer range, the torments and inner conflicts of a hero outraged at the treachery of his uncle, the passivity of an enabling queen, and the limitations of his own conscience. Hamlet's pantomime of madness mirrors the madness he confronts among the court he is to inherit. As the text points out "Hamlet has struck many later readers as a representative modern, someone forced to make his way in a world no longer ordered by traditional institutions" (656).

Themes: 

Nature of Power
Role/Nature of Women
Fortune
Suicide

Treachery

Vanity

Omen

Societal Breakdown

Juxtaposition between Courtly Manners and Corruption

Play-within-the-play

Helena Bohham Carter as Ophelia

Setting: Elsinore Castle, Denmark

Characters:

Claudius: King of Denmark

Hamlet: Prince of Denmark

Polonius: Lord Chamberlain

Horatio: Friend of Hamlet

Laertes: Son of Polonius

Priest

Marcellus, Bernardo: Officers

Reynaldo: Servant to Polonius

Players

Two Clowns, grave-diggers

Fortinbras: Prince of Norway

Captain

Voltimand, Cornelius, Rosencrantz, Gildenstern, Osric, Gentlemen: Courtiers

English Ambassadors

Gertrude: Queen of Denmark

Ophelia: Daughter of Polonius

Lords, Ladies, Officers, Soldiers, Sailors, Messengers, and other attendants

Ghost

The Inferno, Cantos VI-X

                              www.pinterest.com

Dante's Hell, which as the artist has rendered in the above depiction, can be imagined as a conical-shaped pit composed of Nine Rings, each of which houses a category of sinners. These categories are structured according to the notion of Contrapasso: A term that means, in the vernacular, to let the punishment fit the crime--a concept built on cosmic retribution. Each beginning with Limbo is hierarchical, with the least offensive transgressions representing the first ring of the Underworld, with the more offensive sins ranked progressively deeper and deeper, ending in the Ninth Circle, which houses those accused of Treachery--betrayal of one's kin, or of earthly (or heavenly) lord. Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus with kiss, is positioned here along with Mordred, from Arthurian legend who murdered his uncle/father, as well as Cain, who murdered his brother. At the very center tip is Satan (or Lucifer) who sits, three-faced in ice, devouring the worst transgressors of this realm. He is said to be the inverse of God: he is ignorant, powerless, and full of hate, doomed to eternity to devour the souls of the unrighteous (1). 

Canto VI: Dante and his guide enter the Third Circle of hell, where those guilty of gluttony are housed. They observe the sinners wallowing in muck while being pelted with filthy rain and hail. The more they struggle to get clean, the filthier they become. Meanwhile, the three-headed dog, Cerberus stands guard, barking and howling at the Pilgrim and the Poet. Virgil throws a handful of slime to the creature who eats it up greedily. While there, Dante encounters Ciacco, a fellow Florentine, who has dire news about the future of Florence. He mentions three other great Florentine officials, Farinato, Tegghiaio, and Rusticucci, and Dante inquires about their fate in the afterlife: "They lie below with blacker souls, by different sins pushed down to different depths," says Ciacco before moving on. 

Canto VII: In this Canto, the two travelers reach two circles of the underworld, the fourth and fifth, that house the Prodigal and Miserly (Avaricious) in the fourth circle; the wrathful in the fifth. Plutus, the god of wealth, who exclaims "Pape Satan, pape Satan aleppe!" - a phrase even Dante geeks cannot figure out. The two pass the demon without comment, and Plutus seems to lose substance. They come upon a group of souls (the avaricious) and the prodigal (reckless spendthrifts) tugging this way and that, one side shouting "Why hoard?" the other shouting "Why waste?" Dante learns that these are the souls of the "priests and popes and cardinals, in whom avarice is most likely to prevail" (414). Dante thinks he should be able to recognized a few of these "tonsured heads," but the truth is, their deeds have earned them this place in hell and they are muddied beyond recognition. Their love of money--and of Fortune--is useless, as all the gold in the world could not save them. Dante poses the question concerning the nature of Fortune and Virgil scoffs. "How overwhelming is your ignorance!" he says to Dante, before holding forth on his explanation that Fortune seeks out her beneficiaries, shifting them every so often to make things fair. Interestingly, Fortune is cast as a woman in Virgil's monologue (think of "Lady Luck"), and she is hated by those who are lucky. Perchance because she was thought of as capricious and fickle? 

   Virgil guides Dante through the fifth circle of Hell. Gustave Dore.

They reach the swampy, murky, icky river Styx. In it are bodies writhing and fighting, "their faces scarred with rage" (415). They fight and squirm and headbutt each other. Directly beneath the Wrathful are the Sullen, who in life could not be swayed from their self-pity to enjoy life, so they are doomed to an eternity in a pool of sludge to sing a hymn which sounds like gurgling noises to those above the surface. Dante and Virgil are grossed out and they leave, encounter a high tower. 

Canto VIII: Virgil and Dante encounter the mythical ferryman Phlegyas (from the Aenead) and Filippo Argenti, who is apparently a jerk, because Dante doesn't mind seeing a mob of souls rip him apart. Then onward to the City of Dis, where Virgil is turned away at the gate. The two are rattled: Dante begs Virgil not to leave him by his lonesome in hell, and the poet assures him that he will not, and don't worry, there will be help from heaven. 

Canto IX: Visibly and understandably shaken, Dante and his guide discussed what just happened. Virgil is visibly shaken, stuttering out words of assurance that help is on the way. Dante's not so sure, and asks Virgil if any soul has ever ventured this far into hell before. Virgil assures him that even he, a well-meaning Pagan from Limbo, has been down there before. He traveled into the depths of hell to retrieve a soul for Erichtho, who sent him all the way down to the pit of Judas (which is way, way, way down there) and bring out that soul. Virgil goes on talking as he is wont; meanwhile, Dante's gaze travels up the tower to spot a graphic site: Three women, covered in blood, dangle from the tower. These women are the Furies, sent to warn them that Medusa is on her way to turn them into stone. Then Virgil covers Dante's eyes so that he won't be turned to stone. Then they hear something coming. Ripping through the sky and making a big ruckus is an angel coming to save the day. Virgil uncovers Dante's eyes and tells him to look: God's messenger has arrived, and the angel opens the gate with one wave of his wand. The angel admonishes the souls inside for trying to resist God's will. The two enter and find more misery: tombs in the ground shoot flames while the souls of Arch Heretics writhe in pain. 

Canto X: Dante and Virgil enter the tombs of the Epicurean heretics, where they encounter a political enemy of Dante, one Farinata. The two talk. Then, Cavalcanti di Cavalcanti arrives in ghostly form to talk about his son, Guido. Then he disappears. Farinata predicts that Dante will "soon know the pain of exile" (more political allegory here); then Dante wants to know how it is the dead can see into the future but not the present. 

Lasciate Ogne Speranza, Voi Ch'intrate

"Abandon all hope, ye who enter here"

Dante Alighieri by Botticelli (1)

Durante Degli Alighieri (Dante), born ca. 1265, is considered il sommo poeta (the supreme poet) of Italy. As Spain boasts Cervantes and his masterpiece Don Quixote, and Britain retains the great works of Shakespeare, Italy boasts Dante, the fifteenth-century Florentine author of the epic poem, Divina Commedia. As Shakespeare has been affectionately dubbed “The Bard,” so has Dante been dubbed “il poeta” (2). However, the Divina Commedia was not the only source of Dante's fame--or to some, infamy. The poet was a champion of secular rule that delimited the power of the Catholic Church. When he penned The Monarchia in 1318, Dante effectively sealed his fate as a political exile from Florence: the book was condemned and placed on "The Index": a comprehensive list of books forbidden to Italian Catholics until late into the nineteenth century. Dante was cast out of Florence, and never permitted to return. However, as our text observes, the Florentine city council finally repealed Dante's exile in the year 2008.

Divina Commedia

(panichotel.com)

"'Midway along the journey of our life/I woke to find myself in a dark wood,/for I had wandered off the straight path.' With these opening words, Dante compels his reader to inhabit the point of view of a narrator who, halfway through not 'my' but 'our' lifetime, suddenly realizes that he is lost. His life is thus our life, and the ethical or righteous 'straight path' that the narrator hopes to rediscover also comes to be the reader's own goal. Yet this identification of reader and narrator is countered, again and again in The Divine Comedy, by an insistence on the specific circumstances of Dante's own life: traveling into the underworld and into the other realms of the afterlife, we meet his old teacher, Brunetto Latini; the father of his close friend Guido Cavalcanti; his great-great-grandfather Cacciaguida; and, most importantly, the beautiful Beatrice Portinari, whom Dante has loved...since they were both children. In spite of the particularity of this afterlife--or perhaps because of them--the reader constantly identifies with the narrator, experiencing the painful turns of the journey as well as the joyful expectation of heavenly bliss at the road's end" (387). As modern readers we now think of the term "comedy" as something that makes us laugh; however in medieval Europe a "comedy" referred to a work of literature that ended on a positive--or elevating--note. As Dante's Divina Commedia ends with the narrator, Dante himself, ascending to heaven, the epic lives up to its genre (389). 

Gustave Dore Engraving The Inferno (www.wikipedia.org)

Nine Circles of Hell

First Circle: Limbo—Place for unbaptized Christians and “Virtuous Pagans”

Second Circle: Lust—Here reside those whose sensual desire overruled their reason

Third Circle: Gluttony—Houses those whose excessive love of food, drink, and sensuality has condemned them to eternity.

Fourth Circle: Greed—The Fourth Circle of Hell contains those souls who, in life, horded material goods and valued these items over piety.

Fifth Circle: Wrath—Here the wrathful souls fight each other for eternity

Sixth Circle: Heresy—Houses the Epicureans and Hedonists (Heretics) who pleasure at the core of good.

Seventh Circle: Violence—Contains several sub-rings of violent sinners situated according to offense. Guarded by the Minotaur.

Eighth Circle: Fraud—The Eighth Circle of Hell houses those who have sinned by committing deliberate fraud.

Ninth Circle: Treachery—Houses those who have knowingly committed treachery, or betrayal. Includes names from biblical and mythological fame, such as Judas Iscariot, Cain, and Antenor of Troy.

"Stradano Inferno Canto 06.jpg" (Wikipedia.org)

Terms

Acheron:“The River of Woe” in Homeric tradition, the river that led to the Underworld

Charon: the ferryman who transports souls to the underworld

Cerberus: “Hellhound” or three-headed dog that guards the gates of Hell.

Contrapasso: Symbolic retribution for sin—or, “poetic justice”

Dis: City which houses the lower parts of the Underworld for those whose sins surpass faith and philosophy. 

Rebellion of Angels: Refers to the “War in Heaven” between angels, led by the archangel, Michael and Satan’s minions.

Shades: Spirits or souls in the Underworld.

You may recognize many of the Seven Deadly Sins in Dante's Circles of Hell: that is because Book II of The Inferno is structured around the Seven Deadly Sins, which are in traditional Catholicism:

Lust
Greed
Sloth
Gluttony
Envy
Vanity
Pride

This list of capital vices--"capital" as they are believed to lead to other vices, and "destroy the life of grace and charity within a person." The list was part of Catholic catechism for the ethical education of followers and was used in confession. This list of the Seven Deadly Sins was created in the 4th century by a monk called Evagrius Ponticus, who translated them into Greek. The Seven Deadly Sins were used to teach young people how to avoid the trappings of sin and temptation and walk the path of righteousness. There is a complementary set of Seven Virtues which include Temperance, Chastity, Diligence, Charity, Patience, Humility, and Kindness (3).

Medieval Lyrics: 1350-1485

"Lyric poetry gets its name from the lyre, a harplike musical instrument used to accompany the singing of verse in the ancient world; it was associated in Greek and Roman culture with the god Apollo, and connected in Jewish and Islamic culture with King David, supposed poet of the Psalms" (315). In the Christian world, lyrics were sung to honor the Virgin Mary, the Christ child, or the Messiah:


I Sing of a Maiden
MS Sloane 2593. c. 1430.

I sing of a maiden

That is makelees:

King of alle kinges

To her sone she chees.

He cam also stille

Ther his moder was

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the gras.

He cam also stille

To his modres bowr

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the flowr.

He cam also stille

Ther his moder lay

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the spray.

Moder and maiden

Was nevere noon but she:

Wel may swich a lady

Godes moder be.

*matchless, mateless; as/chose; as; where/mother;such
(From: http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/lyrics.htm)


The above poem transcribed and published at luminarium.org is one example of the lyric poetry sung by bards during the Middle Ages. It describes, of course, the Madonna and child. Religious themes represented a portion of the lyric poetry that was composed during that time. The editors of our text point out that the lyrics selected for our text "betray a fundamental ambivalence about the passion of love. On the surface level, there would seem to be a clear distinction between the love of one person for another, which is expressed physically, and the love directed toward God, which is expressed spiritually;" however, in the Near Eastern and European worlds of Persia, Spain, and Arabia, erotic, or "courtly" love was believed by some to be the means by which the Holy Spirit might be revealed to the individual. "The poems of Ibn Arabi, Rumi, and Hafez," the editors remark "evoke this mediating quality possessed by the 'beloved' or the 'freind,' an object of love that can equally be read as a human being adored by the poet or as the transcendent presence of God becoming fully immanent in this world" (315-6). The text also raises an opposition in terms of 'courtly love' as the means through which one gazes the divine through the adoration of a lover. Orpheus, the musician of Greek myth, commits a tragic mistake (according to the poet Boethius), but turning his eyes from the nobler good to rest on his beloved Eurydice (315). Conversely, Dante's Beatrice is the beacon by whom Dante is led to Christ (316).  

Boethius (480-524):

Ancius Malius Severinus Boethius was a sixth-century Roman poet and philosopher who became a senator and political consul, but 'fell into disfavor' and was imprisoned by the Roman government. While in prison, he penned his famous Consolation of Philosophy. His work was favored by two English monarchs whose reigns were separated by nearly 500 years: Alfred the Great, who reigned in the 9th century, and Queen Elizabeth I, who reigned during the 16th century. In the selection from our text, the poet aligns himself with Orpheus, when he realizes that he must return his focus to loftier concerns than earthly love (317). 

"Lady Philosophy leads Boethius towards his enlightenment" (echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.com)

Anglo-Saxon Epic: Beowulf

"Hwaet wé Gár-Dena in geár-dagum

þéod-cyninga þrym gefrúnon"

Written in Old English, the language spoken in Britain preceding the Norman Conquest of 1066, Beowulf is the oldest written epic in the English language. Originating in Scandinavia, it was transcribed after the Christianization of Britain sometime between the eighth and the eleventh centuries. 

The Danish and Swedish tribes that invaded Britain beginning in the 5th century AD were the forebears of the Angles and Saxons, early British tribes who populated Great Britain, and the epic tells not only the exploits and adventures of its hero, Beowulf, but, like most foundational epics, reflects the values, fears, traditions, and social structure of the culture that produced it. 

Form and Structure of Beowulf:

The poem is written in Alliterative Verse, in which the poet strung together words beginning with the same consonant sounds: 

"The folk-king's former fame we have heard of/how princes displayed then their prowess-in-battle" (1)

Further, lines are arranged into sections, divided by Caesuras, or breaks, that are preceded and followed by strong accents--usually two strong accents before the caesura and two strong accents after the caesura. 

Themes:

Allegory: Traditionally, an allegory is a narrative that conveys a spiritual or literary message in a separate, or different venue. Here, Beowulf can be thought of as a Christian allegory that situates "Good" in the form of Beowulf, against "Evil," represented in the monster, Grendel. Another interpretation suggests that Grendel represents a social outcast, or 'other' who kills for the sake of killing--a deed that runs counter to the Geats way of life. Further, he cannot be made to pay the Death Price which makes the creature all the more despicable in the eyes of the authoring culture. 

Fate--or, here, "Wyrd." The Anglo Saxons regarded fate with much the same attitude as did the Greeks before them: Fate was unchanging. Yet, unlike the Greeks who could, conceivably meddle in fate at their own risk, the Anglo Saxon tribes could not alter fate even if they tried. One source describes their treatment of fate as much like that of a god (2)

Death Price: The Anglo Saxons of the Middle Ages were warrior tribes much like their predecessors, and violence was very much a part of daily existence. However, they weren't likely to kill without prejudice: if a warrior killed another, he would expect to pay for his deed with his life. The Death Price has been described as a means of keeping justice and order in an otherwise chaotic and violent world.

Bravery: As in most narratives involving warriors and feats of derring-do, bravery was an essential part of the warrior's (or hero's) dossier. 

Honor: For the Anglo Saxons, honor was intrinsically tied to keeping an oath, repaying one's debts, and fealty to one's lord.

Magical/Fearsome Beasts: Beowulf is one of the earliest narratives that features the hero set against a fearsome, terrifying beast. Here, Beowulf faces the terrible Grendel and his mother. 

Christianity vs. Paganism: Although the epic originated in Scandinavia and handed down to the Anglos and Saxons while they were still practicing Pagans, it was transcribed by newly-converted Christian scribes. Therefore there are elements of both faith systems represented throughout the epic. 

Characters: 

Beowulf: A Geatish warrior of the Middle Ages whose initial fealty is to the King Hygelac. He is member of a tribe called the Weather-Geats, one of two Swedish-descended tribes who reside in what is now Sweden. 

Hrothgar: King of the Spear-Danes. Years before the narrative begins, King Hrothgar settled a blood feud involving Beowulf's father, and thus settled a blood-feud. For this kind deed, Beowulf feels indebted. At the time the narrative begins, however, Hrothgar has withered into an old man, incapable of protecting his kingdom from the terrible creature called Grendel. 

Grendel: The "Monster" who is menacing the kingdom of Hrothgar by killing and eating his victims. Arch-nemesis of Beowulf. Believed to be a "demonic descendent of Cain," therefore representing the greatest of all evils, killing one's brother (fratricide).

Grendel's Mother: Also descended from Cain, also a horrible creature. 

Unferth: Warrior of the Spear-Danes who challenges Beowulf out of jealousy. 

Wiglaf: A young Geatish warrior who remains loyal to Beowulf and helps him to defeat the dragon.