Lasciate Ogne Speranza, Voi Ch'intrate

"Abandon all hope, ye who enter here"

Dante Alighieri by Botticelli (1)

Durante Degli Alighieri (Dante), born ca. 1265, is considered il sommo poeta (the supreme poet) of Italy. As Spain boasts Cervantes and his masterpiece Don Quixote, and Britain retains the great works of Shakespeare, Italy boasts Dante, the fifteenth-century Florentine author of the epic poem, Divina Commedia. As Shakespeare has been affectionately dubbed “The Bard,” so has Dante been dubbed “il poeta” (2). However, the Divina Commedia was not the only source of Dante's fame--or to some, infamy. The poet was a champion of secular rule that delimited the power of the Catholic Church. When he penned The Monarchia in 1318, Dante effectively sealed his fate as a political exile from Florence: the book was condemned and placed on "The Index": a comprehensive list of books forbidden to Italian Catholics until late into the nineteenth century. Dante was cast out of Florence, and never permitted to return. However, as our text observes, the Florentine city council finally repealed Dante's exile in the year 2008.

Divina Commedia

(panichotel.com)

"'Midway along the journey of our life/I woke to find myself in a dark wood,/for I had wandered off the straight path.' With these opening words, Dante compels his reader to inhabit the point of view of a narrator who, halfway through not 'my' but 'our' lifetime, suddenly realizes that he is lost. His life is thus our life, and the ethical or righteous 'straight path' that the narrator hopes to rediscover also comes to be the reader's own goal. Yet this identification of reader and narrator is countered, again and again in The Divine Comedy, by an insistence on the specific circumstances of Dante's own life: traveling into the underworld and into the other realms of the afterlife, we meet his old teacher, Brunetto Latini; the father of his close friend Guido Cavalcanti; his great-great-grandfather Cacciaguida; and, most importantly, the beautiful Beatrice Portinari, whom Dante has loved...since they were both children. In spite of the particularity of this afterlife--or perhaps because of them--the reader constantly identifies with the narrator, experiencing the painful turns of the journey as well as the joyful expectation of heavenly bliss at the road's end" (387). As modern readers we now think of the term "comedy" as something that makes us laugh; however in medieval Europe a "comedy" referred to a work of literature that ended on a positive--or elevating--note. As Dante's Divina Commedia ends with the narrator, Dante himself, ascending to heaven, the epic lives up to its genre (389). 

Gustave Dore Engraving The Inferno (www.wikipedia.org)

Nine Circles of Hell

First Circle: Limbo—Place for unbaptized Christians and “Virtuous Pagans”

Second Circle: Lust—Here reside those whose sensual desire overruled their reason

Third Circle: Gluttony—Houses those whose excessive love of food, drink, and sensuality has condemned them to eternity.

Fourth Circle: Greed—The Fourth Circle of Hell contains those souls who, in life, horded material goods and valued these items over piety.

Fifth Circle: Wrath—Here the wrathful souls fight each other for eternity

Sixth Circle: Heresy—Houses the Epicureans and Hedonists (Heretics) who pleasure at the core of good.

Seventh Circle: Violence—Contains several sub-rings of violent sinners situated according to offense. Guarded by the Minotaur.

Eighth Circle: Fraud—The Eighth Circle of Hell houses those who have sinned by committing deliberate fraud.

Ninth Circle: Treachery—Houses those who have knowingly committed treachery, or betrayal. Includes names from biblical and mythological fame, such as Judas Iscariot, Cain, and Antenor of Troy.

"Stradano Inferno Canto 06.jpg" (Wikipedia.org)

Terms

Acheron:“The River of Woe” in Homeric tradition, the river that led to the Underworld

Charon: the ferryman who transports souls to the underworld

Cerberus: “Hellhound” or three-headed dog that guards the gates of Hell.

Contrapasso: Symbolic retribution for sin—or, “poetic justice”

Dis: City which houses the lower parts of the Underworld for those whose sins surpass faith and philosophy. 

Rebellion of Angels: Refers to the “War in Heaven” between angels, led by the archangel, Michael and Satan’s minions.

Shades: Spirits or souls in the Underworld.

You may recognize many of the Seven Deadly Sins in Dante's Circles of Hell: that is because Book II of The Inferno is structured around the Seven Deadly Sins, which are in traditional Catholicism:

Lust
Greed
Sloth
Gluttony
Envy
Vanity
Pride

This list of capital vices--"capital" as they are believed to lead to other vices, and "destroy the life of grace and charity within a person." The list was part of Catholic catechism for the ethical education of followers and was used in confession. This list of the Seven Deadly Sins was created in the 4th century by a monk called Evagrius Ponticus, who translated them into Greek. The Seven Deadly Sins were used to teach young people how to avoid the trappings of sin and temptation and walk the path of righteousness. There is a complementary set of Seven Virtues which include Temperance, Chastity, Diligence, Charity, Patience, Humility, and Kindness (3).

Medieval Lyrics: 1350-1485

"Lyric poetry gets its name from the lyre, a harplike musical instrument used to accompany the singing of verse in the ancient world; it was associated in Greek and Roman culture with the god Apollo, and connected in Jewish and Islamic culture with King David, supposed poet of the Psalms" (315). In the Christian world, lyrics were sung to honor the Virgin Mary, the Christ child, or the Messiah:


I Sing of a Maiden
MS Sloane 2593. c. 1430.

I sing of a maiden

That is makelees:

King of alle kinges

To her sone she chees.

He cam also stille

Ther his moder was

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the gras.

He cam also stille

To his modres bowr

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the flowr.

He cam also stille

Ther his moder lay

As dewe in Aprille

That falleth on the spray.

Moder and maiden

Was nevere noon but she:

Wel may swich a lady

Godes moder be.

*matchless, mateless; as/chose; as; where/mother;such
(From: http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/lyrics.htm)


The above poem transcribed and published at luminarium.org is one example of the lyric poetry sung by bards during the Middle Ages. It describes, of course, the Madonna and child. Religious themes represented a portion of the lyric poetry that was composed during that time. The editors of our text point out that the lyrics selected for our text "betray a fundamental ambivalence about the passion of love. On the surface level, there would seem to be a clear distinction between the love of one person for another, which is expressed physically, and the love directed toward God, which is expressed spiritually;" however, in the Near Eastern and European worlds of Persia, Spain, and Arabia, erotic, or "courtly" love was believed by some to be the means by which the Holy Spirit might be revealed to the individual. "The poems of Ibn Arabi, Rumi, and Hafez," the editors remark "evoke this mediating quality possessed by the 'beloved' or the 'freind,' an object of love that can equally be read as a human being adored by the poet or as the transcendent presence of God becoming fully immanent in this world" (315-6). The text also raises an opposition in terms of 'courtly love' as the means through which one gazes the divine through the adoration of a lover. Orpheus, the musician of Greek myth, commits a tragic mistake (according to the poet Boethius), but turning his eyes from the nobler good to rest on his beloved Eurydice (315). Conversely, Dante's Beatrice is the beacon by whom Dante is led to Christ (316).  

Boethius (480-524):

Ancius Malius Severinus Boethius was a sixth-century Roman poet and philosopher who became a senator and political consul, but 'fell into disfavor' and was imprisoned by the Roman government. While in prison, he penned his famous Consolation of Philosophy. His work was favored by two English monarchs whose reigns were separated by nearly 500 years: Alfred the Great, who reigned in the 9th century, and Queen Elizabeth I, who reigned during the 16th century. In the selection from our text, the poet aligns himself with Orpheus, when he realizes that he must return his focus to loftier concerns than earthly love (317). 

"Lady Philosophy leads Boethius towards his enlightenment" (echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.com)

Anglo-Saxon Epic: Beowulf

"Hwaet wé Gár-Dena in geár-dagum

þéod-cyninga þrym gefrúnon"

Written in Old English, the language spoken in Britain preceding the Norman Conquest of 1066, Beowulf is the oldest written epic in the English language. Originating in Scandinavia, it was transcribed after the Christianization of Britain sometime between the eighth and the eleventh centuries. 

The Danish and Swedish tribes that invaded Britain beginning in the 5th century AD were the forebears of the Angles and Saxons, early British tribes who populated Great Britain, and the epic tells not only the exploits and adventures of its hero, Beowulf, but, like most foundational epics, reflects the values, fears, traditions, and social structure of the culture that produced it. 

Form and Structure of Beowulf:

The poem is written in Alliterative Verse, in which the poet strung together words beginning with the same consonant sounds: 

"The folk-king's former fame we have heard of/how princes displayed then their prowess-in-battle" (1)

Further, lines are arranged into sections, divided by Caesuras, or breaks, that are preceded and followed by strong accents--usually two strong accents before the caesura and two strong accents after the caesura. 

Themes:

Allegory: Traditionally, an allegory is a narrative that conveys a spiritual or literary message in a separate, or different venue. Here, Beowulf can be thought of as a Christian allegory that situates "Good" in the form of Beowulf, against "Evil," represented in the monster, Grendel. Another interpretation suggests that Grendel represents a social outcast, or 'other' who kills for the sake of killing--a deed that runs counter to the Geats way of life. Further, he cannot be made to pay the Death Price which makes the creature all the more despicable in the eyes of the authoring culture. 

Fate--or, here, "Wyrd." The Anglo Saxons regarded fate with much the same attitude as did the Greeks before them: Fate was unchanging. Yet, unlike the Greeks who could, conceivably meddle in fate at their own risk, the Anglo Saxon tribes could not alter fate even if they tried. One source describes their treatment of fate as much like that of a god (2)

Death Price: The Anglo Saxons of the Middle Ages were warrior tribes much like their predecessors, and violence was very much a part of daily existence. However, they weren't likely to kill without prejudice: if a warrior killed another, he would expect to pay for his deed with his life. The Death Price has been described as a means of keeping justice and order in an otherwise chaotic and violent world.

Bravery: As in most narratives involving warriors and feats of derring-do, bravery was an essential part of the warrior's (or hero's) dossier. 

Honor: For the Anglo Saxons, honor was intrinsically tied to keeping an oath, repaying one's debts, and fealty to one's lord.

Magical/Fearsome Beasts: Beowulf is one of the earliest narratives that features the hero set against a fearsome, terrifying beast. Here, Beowulf faces the terrible Grendel and his mother. 

Christianity vs. Paganism: Although the epic originated in Scandinavia and handed down to the Anglos and Saxons while they were still practicing Pagans, it was transcribed by newly-converted Christian scribes. Therefore there are elements of both faith systems represented throughout the epic. 

Characters: 

Beowulf: A Geatish warrior of the Middle Ages whose initial fealty is to the King Hygelac. He is member of a tribe called the Weather-Geats, one of two Swedish-descended tribes who reside in what is now Sweden. 

Hrothgar: King of the Spear-Danes. Years before the narrative begins, King Hrothgar settled a blood feud involving Beowulf's father, and thus settled a blood-feud. For this kind deed, Beowulf feels indebted. At the time the narrative begins, however, Hrothgar has withered into an old man, incapable of protecting his kingdom from the terrible creature called Grendel. 

Grendel: The "Monster" who is menacing the kingdom of Hrothgar by killing and eating his victims. Arch-nemesis of Beowulf. Believed to be a "demonic descendent of Cain," therefore representing the greatest of all evils, killing one's brother (fratricide).

Grendel's Mother: Also descended from Cain, also a horrible creature. 

Unferth: Warrior of the Spear-Danes who challenges Beowulf out of jealousy. 

Wiglaf: A young Geatish warrior who remains loyal to Beowulf and helps him to defeat the dragon. 

Early Hindu Scripture: The Ramayana of Valmiki

Valmiki (ultham30@blogspot.com)

The "First Poet" and the "Inaugural Poem" of Indian Religious Culture

The Ramayana of Valmiki concerns a man named Valmiki who witnesses a hunter kill a male bird and, horrified at the brutality and coldness of the act, then curses the hunter. Valmiki later reflects on the curse and discovered that he had composed a ‘sloka’: an unrhymed couplet, “which fully expressed his compassionate grief for the slaughtered bird” (1170). This sloka became the means by which he could compose a narrative about Rama and Sita “whose twin sons, Lava and Kusa—by a twist of events—were then being raised in his ashram" (1170). The text relates that in so doing, Valmiki's "life and character are fully integrated with the heroic world he creates and the tale he chooses to narrate." In the rendition of the epic poem featured in our text, we observe what has become since Valmiki’s time, his reputation as ‘first poet’ of Indian Hindu culture, and his Ramayana is considered "the inaugural poem."

Background on Indian Caste System and Hinduism

Indian Caste System:

Priests, Brahmanas

Warriors: Ksatriyas

Traders: Vaisyas

Average Citizens: Sudras

The caste system was kept in place through the practice of arranged marriage: bride and groom were traditionally from the same caste, but not ‘the same clan’ (1170). Each caste followed a set of laws and behavioral codes (dharma) set forth by the gods and spelled out in scripture. Hinduism enforced social order in two distinct texts: the “ritual texts” or Vedas, and the “philosophical texts,” the Upanisads. The individual supplicant achieved salvation by achieving karma "by propitiating the gods and following dharma precisely. But moral laws and codes of conduct are always complex and subtle, and hence easy to violate; numerous rituals are therefore necessary to keep the gods happy, maintaining the moral and social orders, and make up for ethical lapses" (1171).

Hinduism includes a pantheon of numerous gods, but the most significant to the Ramayana is the Brahma: a ‘paternalistic’ (fatherly) god of creation:

Siva, “an angry and retributive god who engenders cycles of creation and destruction":

Visnu, considered a kind god that maintains the “moral balance of the universe” (1171).

The gods and their human interactions: "Much of the flux and dynamism of the universe is due to the perpetual struggle for supremacy between Siva and Visnu. Siva intervenes in the human world directly, in his multifaceted anthropomorphic form; Visnu, in contrast, 'comes down on earth' in a series of distinct avatars or incarnations, living temporarily among mortal creatures each time for the purpose of destroying a particular source of evil" (1170). The Ramayana tells the story of Lord Visnu's seventh human incarnation as Rama, when he descends to earth to conquer Ravana's 'reign of terror on earth and beyond' (1174).

The Ramayana as Traditional Oral Text 

Much like oral tradition, Valmiki is thought to have composed the Ramayana in 550 B.C.E., but the orally-transmitted text had been altered and modified over the following centuries. The Ramayana is divided into seven books or kandas, which are further divided into chapters or sargas that feature “between twenty and fifty couplets”. The “first and last books” of the scripture present “Rama as an avatar of Visnu” and “provide a multilayered narrative frame for the five books in the middle” (1172).

Background to Text Selections

Because of the lengthy nature of the poem, the Ramayana is excerpted selectively in our text, beginning with book 2. Therefore some background to the narrative is necessary for orientation. Book 1 opens as "Bala," or "childhood," which features Ravana, "the brilliant and highly accomplished king of Lanka (what is now Sri Lanka) who "has become invincible, demonic, and evil. Lord Visnu therefore has to descend to earth in a human form and destroy him." Visnu takes the form (avatar) of the human Rama, "the eldest son of Dasaratha, king of Kosala, and his principal queen, Kausalya." The text informs us that Kosala has two other wives by whom he has sons, Rhama's half-brothers, Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata"..."Sumitra has twins Laksmana and Satrughna. All four boys are trained as warriors and future rulers; Rama and Laksmana, inseparable since childhood, become the pupils of the sage Visvamitra." The young men travel with the sage to Videha, where Rama "wins a suitor's contest for Sita, the foster-daughter of that republic's king but actually a child of the goddess Earth" (1172).

Book 2, where our selection begins, where Dasaratha names Rama as heir to the kingship of Kosala, and the announcement is well-received. However, there is 'intrigue' in which Bharata should be named heir to the kingship, and his half-brother be exiled for a period of fourteen years. A struggle for power emerges as one of the chief themes of Ramayana, as we are given "a glimpse into the thoughts and feelings of the characters involved in the struggle for power" (1172). According to the editors of our text, the chapters excerpted from the Ramayana focus on Rama, Sita, and Laksmana and their mutual fourteen-year exile. The tale takes on the aspect of a 'fairy tale.' In Book 3, Aranya ("The Forest), the three characters venture further in to the forest, where they encounter "animals, ascetics, and demons" (1172). The trio must learn to survive in the treacherous environment of Pancavati, until Rama and Laksmana unintentionally trigger a conflict with the god, Surpanakha and her brother, Ravana, the "demonic king of Lanka." To avenge this affront, Ravana decides to kidnap Sita, an event that becomes the turning point in the narrative, as Rama 'virtually goes mad with grief' in the absence of his beloved Sita (1172-3).

Characters:
Rama: Prince and heir apparent to the throne of Kosala

Dasathra: The King of Kosala

Kausalya: Principal of the king’s wives, Rama’s Mother

Kaikeyi: One of the king’s wives and mother of Bharata

Sumitra: Dasathra’s third wife and mother of Laksmana and Satrughna

Sita: Rama’s Wife (princess and daughter of the goddess, Earth)

                            thevedicway.org

Terms:

Ascetic: a person who practices self-discipline and abstention

Dharma: A principle of cosmic order; “virtue, righteousness and duty, esp. social and caste duty in accord with the cosmic order”

Equanimous: Unaffected by praise

Beatitude: Supreme blessing

Primogeniture: The right of succession to a throne or estate by the first son.